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#3478: 1825 History of Dessalines from American Missionary Register
>From Bob Corbett:
I recently acquired this fascinating history of the rule of Jean Jacques
Dessalines in Haiti. It is an 1825 periodical called the American
Missionary Register. I present it here in full, but it can be found
on my web site at:
http://www.webster.edu/~corbetre/haiti/history/earlyhaiti/dessalines.htm
============
A BRIEF HISTORY OF DESSALINES FROM 1825 MISSIONARY JOURNAL
From: AMERICAN MISSIONARY REGISTER: OCTOBER, 1825
VOL. VI, NO. 10
Pages 292-297
[Bob Corbett notes:] I was only able to acquire this one issue. In it
there is a series which is unsigned but says it is to be a history of
Haiti. This segment is on Jean Jacques Dessalines.
Declaration of Independence. -- Dessalines appointed Governor-general
for life, with the power to enact laws, to make peace and war, and to
nominate his successor.
On the first day of the year 1804, soon after the evacuation of the
island by the French, the generals and chiefs of the army, in the name,
of the people of Hayti
signed a formal declaration of independence, and took a solemn oath to
renounce France forever, pledging themselves to each other, to their
posterity, and to the
universe, to die rather than submit again to her dominion. At the time,
they appointed Jean Jacques Dessalines governor-general for life with
power to enact laws, to
make peace and war, and to nominate his successor.
Negroes from the United States invited to Hayti.
One of the first acts of Dessalines was to encourage the return of
negroes and mulattoes from the United States of America. In the early
commotions, many wealthy
planters had quitted the island and gone to the continent, taking with
them a number of their slaves, whom the want of funds to support their
former establishment
had afterward obliged them to abandon: others had voluntarily emigrated
thither at different periods, and many of both classes were now in
circumstances of
distress, without the means of returning to their country. Dessalines
published a proclamation, offering to the captains of American vessels
the sum of forty dollars
for each individual native or black man of colour, whom they should
convey back to Hayti. The general character of Dessalines will hardly
permit this measure to be
considered as the result of pure humanity. It seems to have originated in
a wish to recruit his army, and to restore his exhausted male population.
Proclamation of Dessalines against the French.
Through on the evacuation of Cape Francois, the French inhabitants had
leave and opportunity to depart with their armed countrymen, the
insecurity of any attempt
to remove their money and other moveable effects, determined almost all
of them to remain behind. Seeing the British squadron cruising off the
harbour, and
knowing that whatever property they should embark would be captured and
condemned as prize, they thought it better to stay, trusting to the faith
and mercy of
Dessalines, than to depart without the means of subsistence. Former
experience of the mildness and humanity of the blacks, inspired a hope of
forgiveness and good
treatment, notwithstanding the remembrance of recent circumstances, which
might seem to preclude all expectation of mercy from that insulted and
injured people.
The astonishing forbearance Toussaint, and of all who had served under
him, encouraged a persuasion that their humanity, was not to be wearied
out by any
provocation. All the white inhabitants who had been carried off as
hostages by Christophe, on his retreat from Cape Francois, had returned
in safety, when the
peace was made with le Clerc: and it was known that, during the whole
time of their absence, they had been well treated by Toussaint and his
followers; though the
French, during that period, were refusing quarter to the negroes in the
field, and murdering in cold blood all whom they took prisoners. But
Toussaint was now no
more and Dessalines was of a very different disposition.
Whatever were the secret intentions of this sanguinary chief, when he was
promising protection and security to these unfortunate people, but few
weeks elapsed
before he evidently contemplated their destruction. Just after his
appointment to the office of governor for life, he published a most
inflammatory proclamation,
stating the enormous crimes of the French, and urging his countrymen to
vengeance.
"It is not enough," says he. "to have driven from our country the
barbarians who for ages have stained it with blood: it is not enough to
have repressed the successive
factions which, by turns, sported with a phantom of liberty which France
placed before their eyes. It is become necessary to ensure, by a last act
of national
authority, the permanent empire of liberty in the country which has given
us birth. It is necessary to deprive all inhuman government which has
hitherto held our
minds in a state of most humiliating torpor, of every hope of enslaving
us again. Those generals who have conducted your struggles against
tyranny have not yet
done. The French name still darkens our plains: ever thing reminds us of
the cruelties of that barbarous people. Our laws, our customs, our towns,
every thing bears
the impression of France. -- What do- I say? There still remain Frenchmen
in our island. Victims for fourteen years of our own credulity and
forbearance!
conquered not by French armies, but by the artful eloquence of the
proclamations of their agents! When shall we be tired of breathing the
same air with them? What
have we in common with that bloody-minded people? Their cruelties
compared to our moderation -- their colour to ours -- the extension of
seas which separate us
- our avenging climate - all plainly tell us they are not our brethren;
that they never will become so; and it they find an asylum among us, they
will still be the
instigators of troubles and divisions. Citizens, men, women, young and
old, cast round your eyes on every part of this island; seek there your
wives, your husbands,
your brothers, your sisters, what did I say? seek your children -- your
children at the breast, what is become of them? Instead of those
interesting victims, the
affrighted eye sees only the assassins -- tigers still covered with their
blood, and whose frightful presence upbraids you with your sensibility,
and your slowness to
avenge them. Why do you delay to appease their names? Do you hope that
your remains can rest in peace by the side of your fathers, unless you
shall have made
tyranny to disappear? Will you descend into their tombs without having
avenged them? Their bones would repulse yours. And ye, invaluable men,
intrepid generals,
who, insensible to private sufferings, have given new life to liberty by
lavishing your blood; know, that you have done nothing unless you give to
the nations a
terrible, though just example, of the vengeance that ought to be
exercised by a brave people who have recovered their liberty and are
determined to maintain it. Let
us intimidate those who would dare to attempt depriving us of it again:
let us begin the French; let them shudder at approaching our shores, if
not on account of the
cruelties they have committed, at least at the terrible resolution we are
about to make -- To devote to death whatever native of France dares to
soil with his
sacrilegious footstep this land of liberty."
Cruelty of Dessalines. -- Massacre of the French.
In the month of February, Dessalines issued another proclamation, but so
strongly were the people, and the army in general, disposed to moderation
and clemency,
that all his instigations, sufficient as they seem to have excited a
popular massacre, wholly failed of producing that effect. -- Having for
some time laboured in vain to
make the people at large the instruments of his sanguinary purpose, he at
length determined to accomplish it by a military execution. The various
towns where any
French inhabitants remained, were successively visited by him, and those
unhappy people, with certain exceptions, were put to /the sword, under
his personal
orders and inspection, by the troops whom he appointed to this horrible
service.
The work of blood was perpetrated most systematically, in exact obedience
to the cruel mandate of the chief. Precautions were adopted to prevent
any other
foreigners from being involved in the fate of the French. In Cape
Francois, where the tragedy took place on the night of the 20th of April,
lest from mistake or some
other cause any of the American merchants should be molested, a strong
guard was sent in the evening to each of their houses, with orders not to
suffer any
individual to enter, not even one of the black generals, without the
consent of the master, who was apprized of these orders that he might be
under no
apprehensions for his own safety. These orders were so punctually obeyed,
that one of those privileged individuals who had given shelter to some
Frenchmen was
able to protect them to the last.
The French priests, and surgeons, and others who during the war had
manifested humanity to the negroes, were spared, to the amount of about
one-tenth part of
the whole number. The massacre, in other respects, was indiscriminate.
Neither age nor sex was regarded. The personal security enjoyed by the
Americans did not
prevent them form feeling it a night of horrors. At short intervals they
heard the pick-axe thundering at the door of some devoted neighbor, and
soon forcing it,
piercing shrieks almost immediately ensued, and these were followed by an
expressive silence. The next minute the military party were heard
proceeding to some
other house to renew their work of death.
There was one act in this tragedy which stamps the conduct of Dessalines
with the character of most flagitious perfidy, as well as cruelty. A
proclamation was
published in the newspaper, stating that the vengeance due to the crimes
of the French had been sufficiently executed, and inviting all who had
escaped the massacre
to appear on the parade and receive tickets of protection, after which,
it was declared, they might depend on perfect security. As the massacre
had been expected,
many hundreds had contrived to secrete themselves; most of whom now came
forth from their hiding-places, and appeared on the parade. But instead
of receiving
the promised ticket's of protection, they were instantly led away to the
place of execution and shot. The rivulet which runs through the town of
Cape Francois was
literally red with their blood.
The vindictive, measures of the chief were far from being generally
applauded, even by his brethren in arms. The disapprobation of Christophe
was well known,
though a regard to his own safety restrained him from any open
opposition. Telemaque, and another officer, expressed their horror at
such scenes, and were
punished by being compelled to hang, with their own hands, two Frenchmen
then in the fort. The military execution, with all its enormity, must be
imputed to
Dessalines alone. In an address "to the inhabitants of Hayti," with the
publication of which he concluded the month of April, he ostentatiously
claimed the procedure
as his own, gloried in his superiority to the vulgar feelings which would
have opposed such severity, and evidently laboured to reconcile his
followers to his
sanguinary conduct by insisting upon its justice and necessity; at the
same time affecting to contrast his system with that of the mild and
humane Toussaint, charging
him with a want of firmness at least, if not of faithfulness, and warning
his own successors against following the same conciliatory plan.
Dessalines invades the Spanish part of the Island -- but without success.
A small detachment of French troops still retained possession of the city
of St. Domingo; add the Spanish inhabitants of the eastern part of the
island, who, until
evacuation of Cape Francois, had acknowledged the new government, had
since, under the influence of their priests, withdrawn their promised
obedience, and
espoused the cause of the French. The first objects which engaged the
attention of Dessalines, after the massacre in the month of April, were
the subjugation of the
Spaniards, and the expulsion of the French from the last of their strong
holds. He determined also on proceeding all round the coast, to examine
every station, and
enforce, where it should be necessary, all the regulations he had
established.
On the 14th of May, Dessalines set out from Cape Francois, by the way of
the Mole, Port Paix, and Gonaives, employing himself at the different
places in repairing
the injuries of war, and settling every thing that required his
interference and authority. After going through the western and northern
provinces, he proceeded on his
march to the Spanish part of the island, with a confidence of success
which no circumstances warranted his entertaining. His recent cruelty,
notwithstanding the
attempt in his proclamation to prevent its being turned to his prejudice
with these Spaniards, could not but have inspired them with horror; and
they were not, like
Europeans, inferior from the influence of the climate. They were chiefly
descendants of negroes, and a mixture of the African race, and their
numbers, according to
the best accounts, at the time of Toussaint's conquest of their country,
were above a hundred thousand free persons, and about fifteen thousand
slaves. The species
of slavery there was so mild that the subjects of it were generally and
strongly attached to their masters; and both masters and slaves inherited
a national prejudice
against all the inhabitants of the other part of the island.
Dessalines laid siege to the city of St. Domingo, which appears to have
made a more vigorous resistance than he anticipated. He would probably
halve persevered
in the attempt, but the arrival of a French squadron with a reinforcement
of troops leaving him little hope of a speedy conquest, he raised the
siege, and matched
back again without having accomplished either of the objects of his
expedition.
Dessalines takes the title of Emperor.
The return of Dessalines from his expedition to the Spanish part of the
island was soon followed by his exchange of the title of governor for
that of emperor; and on
the 8th of October, he was crowned with of great pomp. The imperial
dignity, and its investment in the person of Dessalines were further
recognized and confirmed
by a new constitution for the island, which was promulgated on the 8 of
May, in the following year.
Outline of the Constitution
[Corbett notes: Full text of the Constitution of 1805 is available
on my web site at:]
http://www.webster.edu/~corbetre/haiti/history/earlyhaiti/1805-const.htm
[Missionary story continues:]
The preamble of this constitution, which purported to have been framed by
twenty-three men, who professed to have been legally appointed by the
people as their
representatives, decreed the erection of the empire of Hayti into a free,
sovereign and independent state; the abolition of slavery forever; the
equality of ranks; the
equal operation of laws; the inviolability of property; the loss of
citizenship by emigration; and the suspension of' it by bankruptcy; the
exclusion of all white men, of
whatever nation, from acquiring property of any kind, excepting only such
whites as had been naturalized, and their children.
The empire of Hayti, one and indivisible, was divided into six military
divisions, with a general over each, who was to be 'independent of the
others, and to
correspond with the head of the government. The government was vested in
a first magistrate, to be called Emperor and Commander-in-chief of the
Army: and
JEAN JACQUES DESSALINES, "the avenger and deliverer of his
fellow-citizens," was appointed to this office. "The title of Majesty"
was conferred upon him, as
well as upon "his august spouse, the Empress." Their persons were
declared inviolable, and the crown elective; but the emperor was
empowered to nominate his
successor, for whom a suitable provision was to be made. An annual income
was to be assigned to the empress for life; and " to the children
acknowledged by his
majesty;" and his sons were to pass successively from rank to rank in the
army. The emperor was to make, seal, and promulgate the laws; to appoint
and remove at
his pleasure all public functionaries; to direct the receipt and
expenditure of the state, together with the coinage; to make peace or
war; to form treaties; to distribute
at pleasure, the armed force; and to have the sole power of absolving
criminals or commuting their punishment. The generals of division and
brigade were to
compose the council of state.
No predominant religion was admitted. Freedom of worship was tolerated.
The state was not to provide for the maintenance of any religious
institution.
Condition of the people, agriculture, population, etc.
The condition and treatment of the cultivators were the same as under the
system of Toussaint. They worked for wages which were fixed at one-fourth
the produce.
Provisions of all kinds were abundant. There were no whips, not even for
punishment. Idleness was treated as a crime, but was, only punished by
confinement.,
They worked in general very regularly and contentedly, about two-thirds
as-much as in the days of slavery. lt was expected that they should work
on the estates to
which they had been formerly attached; but if they had any plausible
reason for changing, the commissary, or commanding officer of the
district, gave them leave.
Most of the estates were in the hands of the government, as confiscated,
but were let at an annual rent.
The sugar plantations having been mostly destroyed, and the necessary
works, and buildings for its manufacture not having been rebuilt, very
little sugar was made.
The chief produce was, coffee; the crop of 1805 exceeded thirty millions
of pounds, which would load about fifty ordinary ships. There was also in
the island a
considerable quantity of mahogany and other valuable timber.
In a census, taken in 1805, of the inhabitants of the part of the island
under the government of Dessalines, the returns were about 380,000; of
these the adult mates
constituted a very small proportion. The slaughter had fallen chiefly
upon them. The majority of cultivators were women. Marriage, solemnized
according to the rites
of the Roman church, was almost universal and its duties were in general
well observed.
There was a sufficient number of priests, not only from the French clergy
who remained and were spared in the massacre, but from a considerable
supply of
Spanish ecclesiastics, who had been brought, or induced to migrate, from
the other divisions of the island, to render the celebration of religion
very general. On all
public days, as well as Sundays, prayers or mass began and ended the
solemnities of the day. Whether from policy or any better motive,
Dessalines protected the
clergy, and paid a decorous attention to the exterior forms of the
church. All children were, brought to the font; and such religion as
popery amounts to was an
object of public and general interest.
Considerable attention was paid to the subject of education. Schools were
established in almost every disquiet. Seeing the ascendancy of those who
had been
educated the negroes were exceedingly anxious for the instruction of
their children; and the young Haytians were very generally taught to read
and write.
Plan of defense against invasion.
The plan for defending their liberty and lives in the event of another
invasion, had been deliberately settled by Dessalines and the other.
chiefs, and the requisite
preparations were made for carrying it into execution. On the first
appearance of an invasion force,. the towns which were all on the coast
were to be destroyed
and the negro army to retreat to forts built in very strong positions in
the interior of the country. The position's they had chosen were well
selected and strongly
fortified. The artillery of the Cape, which consisted chiefly of brass
cannon, and was in great abundance, had been removed to these hill forts,
where great
magazines of ammunition were also collected. The sides of the hills, and
ravines, connecting them, were all cleared and planted with bananas,
plantains, yams, and
other native provisions, which flourish so much and were so quickly
reproduced, that they calculated on the garrison's being subsisted
without foraging beyond the
reach of their guns. Many of the hills were of a conical form, with an
agreeable ascent, on the summit of which the forts were constructed, so
as to sweep the sides
to the utmost range of cannon-shot, and as they believed, to make it
impossible for an enemy to cut off their communication with these native
magazines. These
positions were also well supplied with water.
Character and Death of Dessalines.
Dessalines, at the time of the insurrection in 1791, was slave to a
negro, who lived to see him become his sovereign. He was short in
stature, but strongly made; of
great activity and undaunted courage. His military talents were thought
superior to those of Toussaint; but in general capacity he was very
inferior to that ill-fated
chief. He commanded great respect, but it was chiefly by the terror he
inspired. He could not read, but he employed a reader and used to sit in
a most attentive
attitude to bear the papers that were read to him. He was distinguished
by some strange caprices, evidently the effect of personal vanity. He was
fond of
embroidery and other ornaments, and dressed often with much magnificence,
at least according to his own taste: yet sometimes he would exhibit him-
self publicly in
the meanest clothes he could find. But what was still more singular and
ridiculous, he had a great ambition to become an accomplished dancer, and
actually carried
about with him a dancing-master in his suite, to give him lessons at
leisure hours. Nor was it possible to pay him a more acceptable
compliment than to tell him that
he danced well, though, different from the negroes in general, he was
very awkward at that exercise.
He had daughters by a former wife, but no son. His last wife-had been the
favourite mistress of a rich planter, at whose expense she had been well
educated. She
was one of the most handsome and accomplished negresses in the West
Indies; her disposition was highly amiable, and she used her utmost
endeavours to soften
the natural ferocity of her husband, though unhappily with little
success.
His cruelties were not confined to the whites. Suspicions and jealousies
constituted a sufficient inducement to him to deprive of life many of his
own subjects and
officers, without even the formality of a trial: and every attempt thus
to terminate danger and suspicion, tending, in the natural order of
things, only to increase them,
his conduct was at length distinguished by all the caprices and
atrocities of tyranny. These crimes inevitably suggested projects for
their counteraction. He was
conspired against by his army, and arrested most unexpectedly at the
head-quarters, on the 17th of October, 1806, when, in struggling to
escape, he received a
blow which terminated his tyranny and his life.
[The piece ends here in this issue, but
indicates it would continue in the next edition.]
Compliments of Bob Corbett